The Issues with Infrastructure Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Issues with Infrastructure - Research Paper Example Unfortunately, the need to build new infrastructure comes at a time when we are dealing with economic deficit. The paper will look into account, the major issues with our infrastructure, including effects of terrorism and natural disasters, funding for departments and new policies aimed at involving private sector in building the new infrastructure. Terror attacks have come up as a new threat against our society and security has emerged as a primary factor to be embedded in our current infrastructure. Security has new found priority, in particular after September 11 attacks. We had to make severe changes in different sectors of infrastructure to reduce the threat. One such example can be seen at airports. Increased traffic has caused congestion at most airports and they have become exceedingly crowded places along with aging infrastructure including runways. Security measures have contributed towards the problem and we see installments of new scanners and surveillance equipment all a round. They have opened up a new fundamental requirement for security and eaten up heavy investments. Terror threats have changed the normal procedures to security centric setup and have left a footprint on the old infrastructure that is modified to incorporate security features. The infrastructure in place for natural disaster includes early warning systems to give government a chance of implementing safeguards. Besides these monitoring systems, rescue teams are elaborately tasked and standard operating procedures for each are very well defined.

Week 1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Week 1 - Assignment Example According to ‘Appendix F: Federal Prosecution of Business Organizations’, the prosecution of a liability by a corporate entity should follow a well laid down procedure, which entails investigating the corporate failure, determining whether a charge is warranted, and negotiating for the corporate entity and the affected parties to reach an agreement, or alternatively enter a plea (Hasl-Kelchner, 2006). In this respect, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is applying this procedure to determine the culpability of Ford Company for the steering wheel problems, with a view to establish whether the company deserves to be charged for the failure. According to ‘Appendix F: Corporate Disclosure of relevant Facts’, it is the duty of a corporation to disclose the relevant facts in relation to a product released, so that the consumers can be fully aware of the nature of the product they are purchasing (Hasl-Kelchner, 2006). In this respect, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is investigating whether the Ford Motor Company was aware of the steering wheel problems with its cars, but failed to recall them back in good time (Jensen, 2014). If the company is found to be culpable for the non-disclosure of facts regarding this product, then it will be charged for a criminal offense. Jensen, C. (2014, October 6). Government Investigates 938,000 Ford Sedans for Steering Problem. The New York Times. Available at:

Individual report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Individual report - Essay Example The implication Brain in organization, Gareth Morgan metaphor â€Å"the brain† is very instrumental in highlighting the challenges we faced as an organization. The CEO as manger demonstrated the principal of the brain according Gareth Morgan. The CEO was more of a facilitator, practiced boundary management and more of orchestra1. The metaphor organisms, the organization as machine it visible under the specific goals and objectives. The organization in question has blue prints that specifically form the organizational chart and the team has specific assignments and goals to achieve hence, they are expected to act in a given manner2. The CEO is the coordinator of all the other group members that are assigned duties that rhyme with their experience3. An element of machine is evident in this case as there is the marketing and sales role, finical department and the design department. 1. SimVen virtual organization are an essential learning tool that portray the real business environment. The tool facilitated the CEO with an opportunity to coordinate the group well and make the right decisions that were vital at the right moment and time. SimVen virtual organization creates the different environments that are present in each organization. At one point in the project, the owner of the company was being underpaid. The fact above is evident even in real organizations. 2. The experience of using SimVen virtual organization has been very instrumental in molding the group o the real aspects of an organization. It is clear that when the CEO coordinates well the group in making decisions the results is success. As the brain, SimVen virtual organization tests all the real life aspects of an organization in real life. He should not be the ultimate designer and kill creativity in the organization. 3. Clearly, from SimVen virtual organization, as a group and at individual basis it is clear that the CEO is an important link in any organization. He is expected to be a

Recruitment And Selection From The Exchange Perspective

Recruitment And Selection From The Exchange Perspective Subsequent to the recruitment of a pool of applicants, organisations need to decide on which applicants to employ. Many organisations are realising the important contribution, effective selection practice can make, and in light of this, are utilising an assortment of methods to improve the successfulness of the entire recruitment and selection process. Validity and reliability are two important aspects that are considered fundamental when assessing the robustness of selection tools, particularly when viewed from the traditional psychometric perspective (Searle, 2003). All selection methods and tools are developed to measure and assess candidates appropriateness for the specified job role. The performance results of the candidate, are frequently used to make the decision, therefore it is imperative that these results are reliable and accurate. Validity concerns the appropriateness of what is being measured, whilst reliability focuses on its accuracy (Searle, 2003). Validity is generally identified in four ways including face, content, construct and criterion related validity. The form of the selection test is what concerns face validity. For example, a test of verbal comprehension that contains only mathematical equations would measure what it sets out to (Searle, 2003). However, there is disagreement as to how far this can be considered a type of validity. Vernon and Parry (1949) found in their well-known research of US army cook selection, that even though the high face validity of the test used which included recipes and method information, what was actually being measured was reading abilities and not cooking skills (Searle, 2003). For test-takers, face validity is imperative as they have made an effort in applying and trying to get the job role, therefore want to believe they have been assessed for something appropriate for the job they have applied for. A potential dilemma with this method lies with the fact that some test-takers may, bas ed on the appearance of the test, perceive their own idea of what is actually being assessed, and may in response distort themselves consequently. Content validity relates to the adequacy of coverage of a conceptual domain (Searle, 2003). It is frequently found in ability tests whereby a test-taker is asked to demonstrate their ability in a specific subject. Other than face validity, it is the only form of validity based on logical rather than statistical information (Searle, 2003). The fundamental concern is the sufficient coverage of the domain. As a result, this form of assessment is often constructed by a panel of experts to ensure sufficient breadth of coverage (Searle, 2003), which can result in two potential problems including content under-representation and construct-irrelevant variance. Cronbach and Meehl (1955) first established the concept of construct validity, when they suggested that underlying each test is a construct that is being assessed (Searle, 2003). Construct validation assumes that anything can be defined and measured. We cannot read someones intelligence metre, therefore a hypothetical construct defining what intelligence is has first to be created in order to measure it (Searle, 2003). There has been criticism of this as a basis for measurement within the human sciences. Stevens (1946) argued that the null hypothesis is hardly ever taken into account; kilne (1998) also critiques this measurement issue. A key concern of test-developers is to show the relationships between their instrument and other established tests which are assessing a similar domain. Criterion-related validity is the final form and is associated with what is being measured to an external criterion (Searle, 2003). It focuses on external measures, such as job success, establishing the relationship between the predictors (results from the selection methods used) and the criterion (performance on the job). The significant issue concerned with this form of validity is the adequacy of the identification and assessment of the external standard (Searle, 2003). Frequently the external measure is chosen for its convenience instead of its relation to the dimension to be assessed (Murphy, 2000) resulting in a possible difficulty. Criterion validity can be assessed in two distinct ways: Predictively or concurrently. The pure method (Bach, 2005) of establishing this relationship is to measure applicants during selection and based of methods used, predict future performance; predictive validity. Applicants are NOT CHOSEN on this basis, but either all or a cross-section (both good and bad predicted applicants) of applicants are taken on. After period on the job, performance is measured and correlation established between the selection method prediction and the job performance criterion measure. The AIM here is to avoid false negatives and positives (Bach, 2005). Practical difficulties with this process of validating selection methods arise, such as need to get results from fairly large number of individuals. A more obvious problem however, is the reluctance of decision makers to agree to employ individuals who are predicted to be poor performers. The CONCURRENT METHOD of validation is sometimes used to avoid this difficulty. The assumption is that existing employees demonstrate variable job performance. If a new selection method can discriminate between good or poor performers, then should be able to in same way between applicants. PROBLEMS motivation of current employees different to candidates, this may affect scores. Candidates likely to try harder. Current employees a restricted sample as have previously been selected by some method, so may on average be better than average candidate. Does not prove that the differences in team skills, as measured by the group exercise, were evident prior to employment. (might be that they werent learnt by employees as by-product of their work). When establishing the value of a test, the development of validity is central as it provides an indication of the strength of the relationship connecting the tool and a criterion (Searle, 2003). New statistical processes such as meta-analysis, (validity generalisation) pioneered by Schmidt and Hunter (1996, 1998, 1999), have revolutionised selection testing. They argued that although validity does differ by way of context and role, it is nonetheless moderately stable. Centred around this claim, selection tools could be moved across a variety of circumstances and roles and still maintain their extrapolative validity. The possibility of these tools being used rather than developing expensive bespoke instruments brought about the potential for huge savings for organisations. However, validity generalisation theory is not without its critics, and there are many underlying problems of this approach (Searle, 2003). Meta analysis is based on the collection and re-analysis of comparable stud ies of tools, such as the situational interview. The current application of meta-analysis studies, remove the possibilities for us to understand why situational differences emerge. They prevent us from identifying what makes a situation unique. Organisations currently operate in turbulent global environments, and evidence suggests that there are important relationships amongst task type, technology and the external environment that meta-analysis studies do not assist us in exploring. As a result of the meta-analysis dominance, selection designs cannot be improved to help organisations in these contexts. A test might produce a measure that is valid for one person, but the results may not be reproducible for another. This brings into question the issue of reliability. Reliability concerns the accuracy and consistency of a method (Bach, 2005). Increasingly, reliability is an issue which is becoming a legal requirement for selection tests yet, according to Bach, (2005) very few organisations systematically assess the reliability and validity of the selection methods they use. When psychometric tests are used, for example, there is a tendency to rely on the evidence presented in the test manual on reliability and validity based on meta-analysis research (Bach, 2005). Establishing the reliability of a selection tool involves three main elements: stability, consistency and equivalence of the results (Searle, 2003). Hermelin and Robertson, (2001) divided different selection methods into three categories (high, medium, low validity). High methods included structured interviews and cognitive ability tests. Medium included biographical data and unstructured interviews and integrity tests. Low included personality scales measuring the big five. Unfortunately evidence suggests that those methods with highest validity are not always the most popular. Rather most orgs rely on classic trio of short-listing, interviewing and references (Cook, 2003; Millmore 2003). Selection Methods Research into these initial selection stages is unbalanced, with far more work looking at the organisation-led application process, (in particular the role of biographical data) rather than the impact of applicants CV. (ALL SEARLE, 2003). The selection process typically begins with the candidate formally demonstrating their interest in the open job role. This is normally made by putting forward their CV or by completing an application form (Searle, 2003). This is commonly the first initial contact between potential employer and candidate, and as most applicants are selected out of the process at this stage, this implies that the CV, or resume, is a primary tool for the applicant in the selection process. Resumes also play an imperative role in the two-way selection process. For candidates, they represent an imperative chance to market themselves positively, and make an impression on the reader with their skills, knowledge and abilities (Searle, 2003). For the employer, they are the foundation on which short-listing decisions are made. The use of competency statements however, can potentially make a false impression. Bright and Hutton (2000) highlight that such statements are problematic to verify in a similar way that qualifications can be. Given its apparent significance however, the research regarding the validity and reliability of resumes to the selection process is modest. To congregate information in a standardised way, organisations may prefer applicants to complete a specific application form. Shackleton and Newell (1991) in their study, found that 93 percent of organisations in the UK used application forms. Now that technology has significantly advanced, many organisations in the UK, in particular those dealing with high volumes of applicants will use online application forms. In addition to gathering personal information they also make available information about candidates experiences. Within this area of selection practice is ahead of research, so although claims are made about the increased access to jobs, the new internet medium may-be overrated (Searle, 2003). However it does enable a more cost-effective short-listing process, (Polyhart et al 2003) but how far this is free from discrimination remains to be seen. Interviews Interviews are one of the oldest, yet most popular tools used in selection. Virtually all employers use interviews for all categories of staff (Bach, 2005). Interviews enable several important assessments to be made, and evidence by Robertson and Smith (2001) indicates that they have high predictive validity regarding future job and training performance. They offer an opportunity for a direct experience of a candidates behaviour coupled with the potential to ask more probing questions regarding underlying cognitive, motivational and emotional issues. Employers are however more aware of their limitations and being more careful by using variety of complementary selection techniques for some groups including graduates. There are two central theoretical perspectives that are taken regarding an interview: the objectivist psychometric perspective and the subjectivist social-interactionist perspective. The objective psychometric perspective places the interview at one extreme. It considers the interview an objective and accurate means of assessing an applicants suitability for a job. From this perspective, the process places the interviewee as a passive participant who provides relevant information about their experiences and capabilities. Thus this perspective reduces the interview to a verbally administered psychometric test which concerns of structure, reliability and validity predominating. First the interviewer is regarded as a rational decision-maker, who is capable of collecting in an impartial manner information on a number of relevant selection criteria. Implicit in such a process is the interviewers ability to obtain relevant data accurately. Second, it is assumed that they have the skills to be able to accurately interpret the information, relate it impartially to the criteria and assess the candidates suitability based on the sample of behaviour provided. This perspective tends to dominate in the field. Much of the research has examined how the validity and reliability of the process can be maintained. Inevitably the focus rests on the interviewer as a potential corrupter of an otherwise objective tool. The interviewers role in producing and perpetuating bias has been the main area of interest, and there has been limited effort until recently into questioning the candidates motivation to present the correct information, or in contaminating the interview. The alternative perspective, places the interview at the other extreme. It considers the process to be a social interaction in which a subjective, socially balanced negotiation occurs. In this perspective, a far more evenly balanced dynamic emerges between each party, both having the same power in the situation. The parties are considered to become participant observers in the process. The interview thus emerges as a complex and unique event. In the selection context, those involved are engaged in creating a variable psychological contract regarding their mutual expectations of future working relationships. The importance of the psychological contract at the onset and its maintenance throughout the employment relationship cannot be overstated (Rousseau, 2001). Herriot (1987) argued that this interactive and social perspective is important because it places the applicant as a far more active player in the negotiation process. This concept is particularly valid in a job market in which the applicants skills and experience are in short supply, or important to the organisation. Under these conditions, the applicant plays a key role in dictating the terms and conditions under which they will be employed. From this perspective, each interview is potentially unique because of the players involved, with the parties creating a particular process that emerges from their current context. The key research issues of this perspective are concerned with the type of psychological contract reached, bias and fairness. Like the objectivist perspective, this approach is also concerned with the future, but not regarding job performance, instead a focus might explore what happens if the contract being negotiated is violated. Structure The single issue that has received most attention in research on the interview is the amount of structure in an interview, ranging from unstructured to structured. Traditionally interviews classed as unstructured, generally consisted of a discussion between the applicant and recruiter with no pre-set topics. An early study by Kelly and Fiske, (1951) highlighted negative evidence suggesting there is little consistency or reliability in unstructured interviews. According to Bach, (2005) UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS are bad predictors because the information which is extracted is different for each individual and differs between interviewers and so comparisons between candidates cannot be made reliably. With different questions being asked of each candidate is almost inevitable that subjective biases makes the interview both unreliable and invalid. However, this form of interviewing provides, at its best, a surrogate measurement of the candidates social skills (Searle, 2003). The term struct ured interview can cover a wide range of processes. According to the objectivist perspective, the structured interview process focuses on the interviewer asking a pre-set sequence of questions aimed at eliciting information relating to pre-determined criteria. The purpose of the structure is to close the process to any extraneous influences, so that even when different interviewers are involved, the same data are being gathered, thereby providing a means of comparing the candidates. As a result, the process of delivering the questions is standardised. Research has shown, that increasing the structure of the interview significantly increases predictive validity and that organisations are responding by using more structured interview approaches (Taylor et al 2002). The subjectivist perspective however, instead regards the interview as a two-way process in which the actions of each party inform and shape the actions of the other. From this perspective, attention shifts towards understa nding the very process of the interview, which emerges as an ongoing exchange, informed and transformed by those involved. Typically the interview is the first time the interviewer meets with the applicant. The recruiters are presenting an image of the organisation in terms of its standards, values, expectations, ambitions and goals. The interview is therefore a public information exercise providing candidates with valuable data that will assist them in deciding whether to accept the job or not if offered it. While structured interviews can certainly be beneficial their usefulness will depend on the specific context. Where jobs are highly prescribed and knowledge about how work needs to be carried out, clarity about what constitutes good performance then structured interviews are better because prediction is possible and they are better predictors. HOWEVER when an organisation is competing in a turbulent environment and there is uncertainty about what is required of individuals a less structured approach may be more appropriate. OVERSTRUCTURING can be a problem, for EXAMPLE in an unstructured interview, the interviewer can provide more realistic information about the job, with the candidate able to ask questions which relate to his or her personal needs, values, interests, goals and abilities. Through this process, applicant and interviewer can negotiate a mutually agreeable psychological contract (CIPD, 2009). ALSO the unstructured interview can operate as preliminary socialisation tacti c with the applicant learning about the culture and values of the organisation (Dipboye 1997). Psychometric testing At the heart of psychometrics lies the assumption that people differ from one another, for instance in terms of friendliness, determination and ability to use mathematical concepts, and that these differences can be measured. It is assumed when measuring these different aspects, they relate to actual behaviour that is, they relate to an external event (a behaviour) to an internal cause (a trait). Psychometrics tests aim to qualify three key aspects of individual differences; ability, personality and related work, and suggest a relationship between these two and motivation. Essentially two types can be distinguished: COGNITIVE/ABILITY TESTS or PERSONALITY TESTS. COGNITIVE: assessment of individuals intellectual abilities either in terms of general intelligence or specific abilities. PERSONALITY: assessment of an individuals general disposition to behave in a certain way in certain situations (Bach, 2005). Cognitive tests The seminal piece of work on the use of cognitive tests in selection was undertaken by Hunter and Schmidt (1990) using meta-analysis, the researchers were able to demonstrate that although the many studies on the predictive validity of test appeared to be inconsistent, when adjustments were made for various factors, results were in fact consistent and proved that cognitive tests were valid predictors in a wide range of job situations. Such tests are simple to administer and score, albeit the person using such test needs to be properly trained. For most jobs the range of intelligence of those applying for the job is likely to be very restricted (rare to have a person with IQ 140 applying for caretaker job). The consequence of this is that a measure of cognitive ability may not differentiate much between the various candidates. Secondly, cognitive tests can be biased against certain groups. Eg it is well documented that black Americans tend to score lower than whites on tests of cognit ive ability, and women tend to score higher than men on verbal ability. This raises SOCIAL AND ETHICAL issues which need to be considered when selecting particular tests. Personality measures In most UK selection situations personality measures are of self report type. There is considerably more controversy over use of personality measures than cognitive tests. Some argue they are totally useless (Blinkhorn and Johnson 1990). Research has shown that personality measurement can be useful but only when specific personality constructs are linked to specific job competencies (tett et al, 1991; Robertson and Kinder 1993). Much of this work based on BIG FIVE Extroversion Neuroticism Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness One problem with research on personality measurement has been that very different systems of personality description have been used, making it difficult to compare results. Now there is growing consensus around five-factor model of broad traits (Goldberg, 1993) and use of Costa and McCraes 1992 personality inventory which measures these five factors. Researchers have also explored the reasons for the links between personality traits and job performance. eg openness to experience appears to be related to training success (Cooper and Robertson, 1995). However, it is unlikely personality tests alone will be good predictors of future job behaviour BECAUSE job situations often present strong situational pressures which mean that differences between individuals behaviour are minimized. ALSO because it is highly unlikely that the same job can be done in very different but equally successful, ways by individuals with different personalities. This doesnt mean that personality measures have no place in selection process, but raises question of how such measures are best used within this context. Defining a personality profile and dismissing candidates who do not fit this profile is not good practice. HOWEVER obtaining measures of personality and using these as the basis of discussion during an interview can be helpful. Occupational testing occupational tests are measurement tools in world of work. The involve looking at a standard sample of behaviour that can be expressed as either a numerical scale or a category system (Cronbach, 1984). Test items are chosen specifically for their relevance to the domain of interest; for example percentage computation or word recognition. There is also an effort to standardise the delivery of the tools, ensuring that candidates have the same test experience so the only variable is their mental process. Tests used in an occupational context can be divided into two distinct groups: typical and maximal. These are based on the type of behaviour they are designed to measure. Typical behaviour tests the purpose of typical behaviour tests is to identify the direction of a persons interests and suggest types of jobs associated with these areas. Personality and interest-assessment tests used in career guidance are examples of typical behaviour instruments. However, it should be noted that they do not measure the level of skill that might be associated with this vocational choice. Maximal performance these tests are designed to assess maximal behaviour. They aim to find out what is the best the test-taker can do (Kline, 1998). Nonetheless, it has been argued that it is naive to make such a simplistic distinction between maximal and typical performance, as it artificially separates the measurement of affect and intellect and their combined relationship to performance (Goff and Ackerman, 1992). Measures concerned with maximal performance can be subdivided into three distinct types: attainment, aptitude and general intelligence. Psychological tests play an important role in selection practice. They offer organisations a means of discriminating between large numbers of applicants in a rapid and often cost effective manner. Moreover, their power in predicting successful subsequent job performance is amongst the highest of any selection tool (Robertson and Smith, 2001). Through the growth of instruments such as organisational-fit questionnaires, different attitudinal and trait assessment measures and novel ability tools, the range of psychometric tools available to organisations in increasing. Although there is an increasing use of psychometric tools in HR selection and recruitment decision making, the method is contentious. Ethnic group differences in intelligence test results reflect the ethnic divide that exists in the distribution of rewards and sanctions in our wider society (Gordon, 1997). Some argue that high intelligence quotient (IQ) scores are not important; rather, what is significant is the identification and means of assessing specific cognitive skills that are linked to job performance (Hunt, 1999). This latter group of more focused cognitive assessment tools can have a significant impact in organisations, revealing how close an applicant is to the requisite skills level estimating how much training an applicant needs to reach an acceptable standard. Psychometric tests will always be open to abuse as they offer a potential means of legitimising discrimination by those in power and authority. Underlying issues of test production and assumptions that underpin psychometrics reveal how social values and prejudice can have an impact on the development, application, analysis and interpretation of results. Whilst some may feel comfortable to reduce the value of human beings to an empirical value, there are others who see humans in terms of their potential, regardless of the social context they find themselves in. A critical issue underlying any test is the definition of the domain. Often tests are devised on an atheoretical basis, or they use the same term to mean different things. It is important that test-users require adequate conceptual rationale for a test. Concept validity is key here; nevertheless, it is often weakly developed or ignored. Without attention to this core issue, psychometrics will fail to offer any meaningful assessment and instead intelligence will be what intelligence tests measure, not what intelligence actually is. Assessment centres (Bach, 2005). Not a single selection method nor a place. Refers to utilisation of a number of different selection methods over a specified period in order for multiple assessors to assess many candidates on a range of identified competencies or behavioural dimensions. Core element is the simulation of actual work tasks in order to observe job-related behaviours (Cooper and Robertson 1995). Managerial jobs: in-tray exercises group decision making exercises = common. Intray: provides candidate with a range of correspondence (memos, letter, reports) and he/she required to make decisions in order to prioritise/deal with various problems in the material under tight schedule. Used to assess individuals planning/problem solving abilities. Group decision making exercise: small groups discuss particular problem, come to consensus/solve problem. Problem solving abilities may be assessed, but also interpersonal and leadership skills. Increasing evidence of their limitations. Jones et al (1991) concluded despite the validity of different components of an AC, overall AC validity was surprisingly low. KEY PROBLEM appears to be that managers, acting as assessors, are not able to accurately assess cross-situational abilities from the different exercises. So while managers are required to rate candidates on diff. Competencies for each exercise, these ratings appear to be defined by overall task performance of the candidate on the particular exercise, rather than specific behaviours demonstrated in activity (Iles, 1992). No. Of studies have demonstrated low correlation between the overall assessment ratings and the variety of the criterion measures of on-the-job performance (Payne et al 1992). Despite negative evidence, two important points to be made: Designing and developing an AC has potential to improve the validty of selection, but simply putting together series of exercises and running them over two days using group of untrained assessors does not guarantee that decisions will be improved. EXAMPLE: gaugler et al 1987 validity of ACs improved when larger no. Of exercises used, and psychologists instead of managers acted as assessors. When peer evaluation included as part of assessment process and when group of assessors cantained larger proportion of women. Many probs identified with ACs need to be looked at from broader perspective than simply criterion-related validity. KEY BENEFIT of using AC is it gives potential to recruit an extended opportunity to find out more about the org. In particular many of the activities are simulations of the kind of work involved. MUTUALLY BENEFICIAL negotiation can take place if both parties know more about each other. THIS REQUIRES adoption of EXCHANGE rather than psychometric view of recruitment and selection process. Recruitment and selection: Limitations of the psychometric approach As noted earlier, adopting a more systematic approach to recruitment and selection to reduce bias and errors is useful. Yet ironically, it could be argued that globalisation and organisational requirements of flexibility, innovation and commitment make the best practices somewhat problematic and suggest a need for an entirely new perspective on RS. FIRST considering degree of change, orgs now require generalists rather than specialists to take on variety of different roles which require range of skills/competencies. Even when individual recruited for specific position, highly likely job role will change. Therefore, best practice prescription of doing a thorough job analysis to identify the task and the person requirements of the particular job may be difficult or inappropriate. There is not a fixed jigsaw hole to fill. SECONDLY alongside flexibility is need for innovation. Identifying opportunities for change and designing creative solutions is crucial for the survival of many orgs. It is about encouraging people to think differently. Following best practice guidelines leads to selection on basis of whether candidates can do particular jobs efficiently and whether they fit org culture. Rather than encourage innovation, traditional selection approaches may stifle creativity. THIRDLY, orgs operating on global rather than national level. Considering array of cross-national differences it is unlikely that orgs will be effective if they simply try to replicate their home-base operation abroad (Bartlett and Ghoshal 1989). To manage this diversity requires RS of people from different backgrounds with different experiences at all org levels. HOWEVER job analysis is backward looking. EXAMPLE if current job holders are all of same race/nationality, this may mean individuals from different backgrounds will be excluded because they do not fit the existing profile of a competent employee. ALSO during selection, different background candidates may respond differently so that they are at a disadvantage, again reducing their chances of being selected (SHack

Vengeance of the Gods :: essays research papers

What is an epic? An epic is an extended narrative poem recounting actions, travels, adventures, and heroic episodes and is written in a high style. The Odyssey, by Homer, is definitely one of the greatest classic epics known to man. This tale contains numerous epic elements such as in media res or â€Å"in the middle of things† to grab the reader’s attention and make the reader keep reading to get the full story. Throughout the story, Homer included the epic element of divine intervention where the gods play a role in the outcome of actions of mortals. The theme of hospitality to strangers is also present in this celebrated epic. The Odyssey is worthy of being an epic because of these three conventions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Homer uses the epic element in media res to pull the reader in by starting in the middle of the story. The reader is then filled in by flashbacks or the main character re-telling his tale. By using this convention, Homer keeps the reader curious and interested and makes the reader keep reading until he or she finishes understanding the whole plot. In The Odyssey, the reader does not know half of Odysseus’ journey until he enlightens Alkinoos and Arà ªte as to what events took place before he was washed ashore on Kalypso’s Island. The reader always expects for the story to go directly to Odysseus, but instead the story follows the gods. Homer used in media res to show respect to the gods by starting the story â€Å"In the bright hall of Zeus†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (I. 42). The author depicts conservation between Zeus and Athena about the fate of Odysseus to show that the gods always come first even before the main character. Homer uses the curiosity of the r eader to his advantage by starting out Odysseus’ long journey home in media res.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Divine intervention is another major component of this epic. At the beginning, Homer placed the role of the gods to determine the fate of Odysseus. â€Å"With this Athena left him/ as a bird rustles upward, off and gone. / But as she went she put new spirit in him, / a new dream of his father†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (I. 368-371). Without the involvement of the grey-eyed goddess Athena, Telemakhos would never have gain the courage to journey out into the world to find the fate of his father. Throughout the epic, Athena appears on earth disguised as everything from a little girl to Odysseus’s old friend Mentor to spin Odysseus’s long journey home.

Business Environment Of Oman Air Essay

Introduction SWOT analysis is a beneficial tool that takes into account not only for our own business but also our competitor’s events and current industry trends as well. It is a framework for any organization in strategic planning for the factors that affects business be it internal or external. This understanding of business factors will help managers effectively to any changes in the factors and facilitate decision making. Factors can be based on economy and non-economic. By economic factors we understand the fiscal and monetary factors, whereas non-economic factors include socio cultural, educational, political and legal system. To identify the internal strengths systematically SWOT analysis is an important tool for an organization. Objective In this paper we will use SWOT analysis to increase the sales revenue for next five years. SWOT Analysis is a useful method to understand the Strengths and Weaknesses and for detecting both the Opportunities open to the business and the Threats the business will face. SWOT Analysis for business SWOT is a very powerful tool in business as with a little thought it can help you discover prospects that you are well-placed to exploit and by understanding the weaknesses of your business, you can manage and remove threats that would otherwise catch you unexpectedly. By observing at our own business and our competitors using the SWOT framework, we will start a crafted strategy that will help us distinguish Oman Air from other competitors, so that we can compete successfully in the market. Strength and Weaknesses of an organization are mostly internal whereas the opportunities and threats are often external factors. The internal factors are mostly the factors that can be controlled internally in a company. Factors like e-commerce, technology and business expansion. The organizations have to continuously upgrade and adapt to factors if it has to sustain in the market. Internally the company is considered as in conversion machine who  takes in input such as labor, money, equipment and material from the external factors and it converts those input into an output such as service, products and goods. The few factors that constitute the internal factors are Vision, missions and objectives, internal power relationship, management structure nature, company image and brand equity, and human resource. The external factors is a set of complex, rapidly changing and significant interacting institution and forces that effects the organizations ability to serve its customer. This factors conditions interact with strategic decisions and therefore it is important for organizations to understand it’s importance. SWOT analysis framework is both simple and powerful tool for strategy development. Analysis of the strength and weakness of the organization and opportunities and threats in the factors is the first step in strategic management process. Strengths Direct flights to Europe, far east, Asia, Africa, Indian sub-continent and middle east. National fuel price National carrier of Oman Government support Weaknesses Connectivity to far Europe and United States which affects the sales revenue. High operational cost. Product Employee Education and growth Opportunities Many award won by the airline helps in better marketing and increase sales High season and low season sales as per class of travel Our business sector is expanding, with many future opportunities for success. Local government wants to encourage local businesses. Expansion Plans Threats Competitors sales strategies Connectivity of Flights Emerging demand for low cost Airlines. Strengths Oman air has direct flights to Europe, Middle east, Africa, Asia and Indian subcontinent which is one greatest strength of the company. The sales team uses this to attract tourist, medical tourist and corporate customers. The revenue can increase if we increase the frequency of the fights to Indian subcontinent from 1 flight per day to 2 flights per day to destination to Cochin, Chennai, Mumbai and Delhi. Increasing frequency to flights to Europe will add on to more revenue by increasing from 3 flights to 5 flights per week to Paris, Munich and by connecting the Munich flight via Milan. The Fuel price is another factor which directly affects the cost of per flight. The airline can avoid extra expenditure by using more fuel efficient aircrafts and by using one engine during taxi especially at airports like Dubai where the rush hours are too busy and involves longer taxi. The one engine taxi will help is reducing fuel consumption and will bring extra revenue. Weaknesses Oman air been a small organization faces lot of competition from the neighboring countries. Oman air flies to only 47 destinations out of which only 4 European destinations. Airline loses lot of business due to lack of connectivity to other European sectors like to Belgium, Amsterdam and also to America. If Oman air increases its connectivity to US and more European sectors this will increase the sales by attracting more customers from other countries Muscat being the hub and bring more revenue in next five years. The cost of operations in Muscat is high. The basic salary paid to locals is very high compare to other countries and airlines. Due to government involvement in the airline the compulsion to recruit locals is very strict. For example the basic salary paid to a check in staff in Oman air is 350 Omani rials with whereas Emirates pay 300. To reduce this cost company has to increase revenue from other sources as this is inevitable cost. Opportunities Oman Air won the best business class seats award for last 3 years, best middle east airline in economy service award in 2014and many others. This achievement can be used more and get more customers by advertising. Investment in marketing and advertisement now will bring more customer and increase in revenue in next coming years. Liaise with corporate and agent customers to frame incentive programs and agreement in order to ensure maximization of business partnership and build strong customer base Airline business is directly affected as per the seasons. During the high season like June and July the airline can close the lower class fares and sell only the high class tickets. Because of demand in market the sales will be high. Whereas during low peak season the flights should be open for lower classes that will attract more customers and fill the fights and generate more revenue in long run. Constantly checking with corporate customers to promote all frequent flyer programs and enroll them to add business to WY network. Keep our competitors in mind Oman air can plan for fare sales during off season to again boost the sales. Threats Oman air being small airline with just 47 destination and 30 aircrafts faces lot of competition from other big airlines around like emirates, Qatar, Etihad, Jet airways etc. and also some low cost airlines like Fly Dubai. Oman Air have few destinations but this big giants in the market give competition to Oman air operations. Better connectivity of other competitors is one of the major factors that effects the load factor on Oman air. Customer prefer to fly on the same airline with a continuity for example if a customer wants to fly to Amsterdam he will prefer taking Emirates or Qatar as they fly direct or via another airport. This results in losing many local passenger as well as international customers. Company can escape these losses by expanding faster and after proper survey of market to retain its customer. Increasing the connectivity will help in retaining the loyal customer and also to gain new customers which will help in increasing the revenue in longer run. The route factors and the fares on those routes play another important role in the competitive market of aviation. During off  peak seasons the competitors as well reduce their fares to get more business. They offer sale prices and other attractive offers to make the customer chose there airline. To avoid this Oman air will do better market study and come out with more attractive offers and incentives for travel agents to sale Oman air tickets and services. Conclusion The above findings will therefore increase the revenue of Oman air by 10 percent every year for next five years after meeting all extra costs that the company has to incur. Success of Oman Air depends on the adaptability of the business factors, it is subjected to. The factors are link together and all factors influences policy making in the business. SWOT analysis is an effective tool in examining the business factors. Business should respond to the factors changes and the manager’s approach toward those changes is very vital. With the understanding of this factors that will influence the business Oman Air can save lot of time and bring the difference by using SWOT Analysis. References Daniel, C.(2011). Business Factors. http//www.articlesnatcg.com/Article/Business-Factors/252704. Dreze, J. & Amartya, S (1996). Economic development and social opportunity, oxford University press. Menon, A. et al. (1999). â€Å"Antecedents and Consequences of Marketing Strategy Making†. Journal of Marketing (American Marketing Association Quincy, Ronald.† SWOT Analysis: Raising capacity of your organization† Rutgers School of Social Work. http://www.learnmarketing.net www.omanair.com

Cja 234 Jail and Prison

Jail and Prison CJA 234 Jails and prisons from the outside perspective seem to have the same meaning. Although jails and prisons are a part of the criminal justice system correctional system, the fact is jails and prisons are different. The jail system is a short-term facility where inmates are confined until their trial date. State and Federal prisons are long-term facilities where inmates are confined after being convicted. The roles and functions of jails throughout history set the standards for jail. An inmate is taken after they have been arrested for committing a crime.Jail is a short-term location for inmates who are awaiting trial or sentencing. Inmates sentenced to twelve months or less serve their time in jail. Jails are owned and operated by the states local government or the sheriff’s office. â€Å"The first jails were created in England and they were called gaol† (Seiter, 2011, p. 72). Early jails had terrible conditions such as filth, no medical care, and poor food. There were times when large numbers of inmates were contained in one large room. â€Å"Jails were used to house displaced persons, the poor, and the mentally ill because of the vagrancy problems during he fourteenth and eighteen centuries† (Seiter, 2011, p. 72). In 1773, John Howard was the sheriff of Bedfordshire. During his inspection of the local jail John was surprised by the horrible conditions. To find examples of prisons that could be replicated in England, John Howard visited other European countries. John Howard along with members of the English House of Commons drafted the Penitentiary Act of 1779. A reformatory regime that required inmates to be confined in cells unless they were working in common rooms, secure and sanitary, systematic inspections, nd abolition of fees were the four requirements created from this act for English prisons and jails. Jails have an important role in corrections; jails are also known as correctional centers. The purpose of ja il is confine criminals to punish them for their wrongdoings. Criminals must be held accountable for their own actions, the criminal’s punishment is determined after conviction. The theory for incarceration is that if criminals are imprisoned they will not commit crimes. Being incarcerated gives inmates the opportunity to evaluate their actions to make wiser decisions.State prisons are operated by the state; state prisons are prisons that confine inmates that have committed state crimes or crimes committed in that state. Every state has its own penal code. When an inmate is serving more than one year they are contained in a state prison. Robbery and sex crimes are examples of state crimes. Federal prisons are prisons that confine inmates that have committed federal crimes. Federal prisons are operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The Bureau of Justice Statistics states inmates confined to federal prisons are the legal authority f the federal government. Jails and prisons classify inmates by security levels. It is essential for each inmate to be assessed and classified into the appropriate correctional setting. If prisoners were held in a prison without concern for classification there would be a several concerns. Jails, state prisons, and federal prisons purpose is to confine and rehabilitate criminals. Institutional misconduct, prison violence, over crowdedness, and prison escapes are a few concerns. Inmates are separated by the seriousness of the crime committed, previous records, and violence history.Security levels are physical features that jails, state prisons, and federal prison have in place to control the behavior of inmates and prevent them from escaping. Jails have security levels that inmates are evaluated and confined to. The security levels are the basic security levels. The type of security in a jail is at the jails discretion. The Cook County Sheriff’s office categorized by divisions. There are different types of jails and pr isons. Each security level has rules and restrictions, they have some similarities but, they are different. The igher the security level the more restrictions are in place. In state prisons inmates are classified by security levels. The security level is determined by each state. Inmates are categorized by the type of problems they have and their violence level. The common levels of security for state prisons are low, medium, high, and maximum security. States do not categorize the security levels with the same name even though the definitions are the same. Jails, state prisons, and federal prisons have the same theory, which is protecting the public by ensuring the accused and convicted are detained.There are five security levels in the federal prisons system: minimum, low, medium, high, and administrative. According to the Federal of Bureau of Prisons website the highest percentage of inmates is in low security. The different security levels are necessary to confine the offenders appropriately. The minimum security institutions are known as Federal Prison Camp (FPCs). The FPC’s have limited perimeter fencing. The low security institutions are known as Federal Correctional Institutions (FCIs). The FCI’s have double-fenced perimeters. The medium securityFCI’s have double-fenced perimeters with electronic detection systems. The high security institutions are known as the United States Penitentiaries (USPs). The USPs are highly secured with walls or reinforced fences. Jails and prisons are places where inmates are incarcerated to become rehabilitated. There are similarities and differences between jail, state prison, and federal prison, the main difference in the amenities and programs. Jails are locally operated, state prisons are operated by the state, and federal prisons are operated by the federal government. The difference in jail, state, and federal rison is how defendants serve their time. Defendants that are convicted of state crimes serve their time in state prison, defendants that are convicted of federal crimes serve their time in federal prison. Defendants that are convicted of minor crimes and sentenced to two years or less serve their time in a jail. Because jails are considered to be short-term, state prisons and federal prisons offer training and programs that jails do not offer. A county jail may offer work release programs. State and federal prions also offer work release programs, they also may have alfway houses services or vocational training. The jail and prions system has the tools necessary to ensure offenders will become positive productive members of society. The prison population has increased. The factors that influence the growth in jails, state prisons, and federal prisons are economic conditions, sentencing laws, crime rates, and offenders returning to prison. Jails and prisons are different, each facility have its own problems. The common goal between jail and prions is serving and prote cting the community and helping the convicts reenter society as positive productive members.References Bureau of Justice Statistics. Office of justice programs. Retrieved from http://bjs. ojp. usdoj. gov/index. cfm? ty=tp&tid=133 Cook county Sheriff website. Retrieved from http://www. cookcountysheriff. org/doc/doc_DivisionsOfJail. html Federal Bureau of Prisons. An agency of the U. S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from http://www. bop. gov/about/facts. jsp. http://www. bop. gov/locations/institutions/index. jsp Seiter, R. (2011). Corrections: An introduction, Third Edition. Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.